Battle of Hastings, The Read online

Richard Gameson ed., The Study of the Bayeux Tapestry, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 1997.

  Paul Hill, The Road to Hastings: The Politics of Power in Anglo-Saxon England, Tempus Publishing, Stroud 2005.

  C. Warren Hollister, Anglo-Saxon Military Institutions on the Eve of the Norman Conquest, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1962.

  Eric John, ‘Edward the Confessor and the Norman Succession’, English Historical Review, 371 (1979), 241–67.

  Charles Jones, The Forgotten Battle of Fulford, Tempus Publishing, Stroud 2007.

  Sten Körner, The Battle of Hastings, England and Europe 1035–1066, Skånska Centraltryckeriet, Lund 1964.

  Ryan Lavelle, Æthelred II, King of the English 978–1016, Tempus Publishing, Stroud 2002.

  M. K. Lawson, The Battle of Hastings 1066, Tempus Publishing, Stroud 2002.

  M. K. Lawson, Cnut, England’s Viking King, Tempus Publishing, Stroud 2004.

  Charles H. Lemmon, The Field of Hastings, St Leonards-on-Sea 1970.

  H. R. Loyn, Anglo-Saxon England and the Norman Conquest, Longmans Green, London 1966.

  Frank McLynn, 1066: The Year of the Three Battles, Pimlico, London 1999.

  Emma Mason, St Wulfstan of Worcester, c.1005–1095, Oxford 1990.

  Stephen Morillo, ed., The Battle of Hastings, sources and interpretations, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 1999.

  Catherine Morton, ‘Pope Alexander II and the Norman Conquest’, Latomus, XXXIV, Tournai 1975, 362–82.

  Gale R. Owen-Crocker, King Harold II and the Bayeux Tapestry, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2005.

  J. H. Round, Feudal England, Allen and Unwin, London 1964.

  Pauline Stafford, Queen Emma and Queen Edith, Oxford 1997.

  Sir Frank Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, The Oxford History of England, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1962.

  Sir Frank Stenton, ed., The Bayeux Tapestry, a comprehensive survey, Phaidon Press, London 1965.

  Matthew Strickland ed., Anglo-Norman Warfare: studies in late Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman Warfare, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 1992.

  Victoria Thompson, Dying and Death in Later Anglo-Saxon England, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2004.

  Ian W. Walker, Harold: The Last Anglo-Saxon King, Sutton Publishing, Stroud 2004.

  Dorothy Whitelock, The Beginnings of English Society, The Pelican History of England, London 1954.

  Whitelock, Douglas, Lemmon and Barlow, The Norman Conquest: Its Setting and Impact, Eyre and Spottiswoode, London 1966.

  Ann Williams, The English and the Norman Conquest, Boydell and Brewer, Woodbridge 1995.

  Ann Williams, Kingship and Government in Pre-Conquest England, c.500–1066, Macmillan 1999.

  David M. Wilson, The Anglo-Saxons, Penguin, London 1972.

  INDEX

  Abelard, Peter 206

  Adalbéron, Archbishop of Reims 46

  Adela, Countess of Blois 195, 230, 231

  Ælfgar Leofricson

  Earl of East Anglia, 28;

  Earl of Mercia, 27–8, 124

  Ælfgifu (half-sister of Athelstan) 235 n.xxviii

  Ælfgifu of Northampton 11, 233 n.iv

  Ælfric of Abingdon, 31, 79; Colloquy, 66

  Æthelberht, King of Kent 59–60

  Æthelred I, King of Wessex 32

  Æthelred II, King of England 11, 17, 18, 32, 37, 55, 169

  and Danegeld 14, 60–1, 62, 100

  and navy 105

  and Viking raids 5–6, 8, 10–11, 76

  Æthelric, Bishop of Sussex 53, 225

  Æthelric of Kelveden 144

  Æthelweard, ealdorman 79

  Æthelwold, St 136, 213

  Æthelwulf, King of Wessex 32

  Agatha, wife of Edward the Atheling 29

  Agincourt, battle of 2

  Alcuin 75, 76, 82

  Aldyth (wife of Harold II) 210

  Alexander II, Pope 133, 140, 142

  Alfred the Atheling 15–17, 21, 24, 37

  Alfred the Great, King of Wessex 5, 19, 25, 32–3, 52, 57, 59, 60

  and Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 88–90, 99, 218

  and education and learning 75–6, 77–8, 88

  and fortifications 98–9, 162

  and kingship 93

  and navy 99, 104–5

  and papacy 136

  pilgrimage to Rome 13, 64

  Amatus of Montecassino 195, 231

  Andredesweald forest 177

  Angevin kings 60, 203, 212, 214

  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

  and Æthelred 58, 88–9

  and Alfred the Atheling 16–17

  and Alfred the Great 88–90, 99, 218

  and army 102

  and battle of Hastings 3, 96, 143, 171, 176–7, 199

  and battle of Stamford Bridge 152, 155

  and Edward II the Confessor 20, 22–3, 24–5, 40, 46

  and Harald Hardrada 150

  and Harold II 28, 123, 164, 219–20

  and pilgrimages 64

  and ship-building 105

  and submission to William II 200

  translation of 79

  value as source 218–20

  versions 25, 36, 38, 46, 88, 155, 219, 226, 231–2

  and Viking raids 9–10, 88, 99

  Anglo-Saxon England

  and Christianity 57, 70, 136

  coinage 58

  culture 2, 4, 55, 70–1, 81–5

  language see English; literature

  local government 59

  as nation state 56

  trade 12, 62–6, 73

  unity 57–8

  Viking raids on 5–10, 11, 24, 55, 57, 58, 61, 66, 75–6, 95

  wealth 2, 9, 12, 55–6, 62–72, 209

  see also army, English; law

  Anna Comnena 119

  archers

  English 116, 175, 178–9

  Norman 115, 175, 179–80, 184–6, 193–4

  aristocracy

  and fighting 93

  Norman 211–12

  armour and equipment 113–14, 117–21, 153, 156, 178, 180

  army, English

  of Alfred 99

  archers 116, 175, 178–9

  cavalry 108–9, 120, 155–6, 228

  composition 95–6

  desertions 172, 175–7, 228

  equipment 103–4

  forced marches 151–2, 156, 167, 179

  infantry 110, 183, 186

  and military service 62, 65, 100–4, 107–8, 143–4

  payment 108

  provisioning 116

  shire levies 9–10, 99, 100–4, 164, 167, 178

  size 96–7, 112, 171–3, 179

  see also housecarls

  army, French 94

  army, Norman

  archers 115, 175, 179, 180, 184–6, 193–4

  Breton soldiers 112, 132, 183, 185–7, 193

  cavalry 96, 107, 108, 109–10, 112–15, 117, 118–19, 174, 178, 183, 185–6, 193

  composition 110–14, 131

  equipment 104, 174

  infantry 115–16, 175, 184–6

  mercenaries 112, 135–6, 190

  and military service 106–8, 110–12, 115

  payment 115

  penance imposed on 112, 141–2

  provisioning 116, 166–7, 179

  retreats 182, 185–92

  size 96–7, 112, 163, 172

  army, Norwegian 148–9, 153–7

  Arques, William, Count of 42

  Ashdown, battle of 177

  Asser (scholar) 78

  Assandun, battle of 10

  Atheling, definition 233 n.iii

  Athelstan, King of England 5, 45, 57, 59, 64, 76, 95, 104

  Athelstan (son of Æthelred) 64

  axes, bearded 104, 119–20, 185

  Bachrach, Bernard S. 116, 190–1

  Baldwin V, Count of Flanders 24–5, 28, 42, 131

  banner

  Fighting Man 70

  papal 140, 142–3

  Landwaster 150, 153, 156

  Barlow, Frank 18, 80, 125, 126, 234 n.vii, 237 n.lxvii
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  Bates, David 80–1, 236 n.xlv

  Battle Abbey 142, 177–8

  Battle Abbey Chronicle 174, 231

  The Battle of Maldon 7–8, 58, 88, 215

  Battles, full-scale 93–5

  Baudri de Bourgeuil 181–2, 195, 230, 231

  Bayeux Tapestry 48, 50–1, 53, 229–31

  and armour 117–18, 178, 180

  and death of Harold 193–6, 230, 231

  and English army 104, 116

  and Norman army 96, 174, 184

  and papal banner 142

  survival 67

  value as source 229–31, 232

  and weaponry 120

  Bede, the Venerable 56–7, 76–7, 87

  Benedict Biscop 77

  Benedict VIII, Pope 12–13

  Benedict X, Pope 237 n.lxxv

  Beowulf 44, 69–70, 82–4, 118, 215

  Bjorn Estrithson, Earl 27, 35–6

  Blake, N. F. 215

  blinding, as punishment 16–17, 194

  Bloch, R. Howard 195–6

  Boethius, The Consolation of Philosophy 93

  Boniface of Mainz, St 76

  Bosham, manor 50, 146–7, 196

  Bretons, in Norman army 112, 132, 183, 185–7, 189, 193

  Brown, R. Allen 49, 110, 152, 189–90, 193, 234 n.xv, 236 n.lix

  Brunanburh, battle of (937) 95

  burhs (fortified towns) 98–9, 136, 162

  Burne, Col. A. H. 189

  Byrhtnoth, ealdorman of Essex 7–8, 58, 100, 109, 215

  Byrhtwold 88

  Caldbec Hill 2, 177–8, 180

  Campbell, James 55, 60, 79–80, 82, 234 n.xxi, 235 n.xxiii

  Canterbury

  and Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 25, 219

  archbishopric 23, 137–8, 205–6

  and Bayeux Tapestry 53, 229

  Christ Church Abbey 53, 205, 225

  Codex Aureus 70

  Caradoc ap Gruffydd 123

  Carmen de Hastingæ Proelio 146, 156–7, 159, 165, 171, 174–5, 181–4, 191–2, 220–3

  cavalry

  Anglo-Saxon 108–9, 120, 155–6, 228

  Norman 96, 107, 108, 109–10, 112–15, 118–19, 174, 178, 183, 185–6, 193

  Chanson de Roland 81, 184

  chansons de geste 81, 214

  Charlemagne 64, 75, 76

  Charles the Simple, King of the Franks 6

  Chibnall, Marjorie 111

  Christ Church Abbey, Canterbury 53, 205, 225

  Christianity

  and learning 75–8

  as unifying factor 56–7, 66–7

  Christina, daughter of Edward the Atheling 29

  Church, English 11, 67–8, 136–41, 205–7

  churls 73, 100

  Clapham, J. H. 109

  Clark, Sir Kenneth 70

  class, social 58, 60, 72–3, 93, 209

  Norman ruling class 204–5

  Cnut 10–15, 76, 169

  coronation oath 200

  fleet 69

  and housecarls 13–14, 100

  as king of Denmark and Norway 12

  as king of England 10–15, 19, 36–7, 55, 203–4

  laws 14, 103, 124–5, 203

  Codex Aureus 70

  coinage, English 58, 65, 130, 209–10

  combat, trial by 165

  Conan, Count of Brittany 132

  Conrad, Holy Roman Emperor 12–13

  coronation oath 200–1

  Crécy, battle of 2

  cross-bows 183

  Crusade, First 135–6, 140

  culture, Anglo-Saxon 2, 4

  Cuthbert, St, stole and maniple 68, 213

  Cyneheard 88–90

  Cynewulf, King of Wessex 88–90

  Danegeld 8–9, 14, 36, 60–1, 62, 99–100

  Danelaw 5, 8, 56, 61, 101, 124, 148

  Danes see Danelaw; Vikings

  Dante Alighieri 134

  Davies, R. H. C. 220–1

  desertions, at Hastings 172, 175–7

  Dives, Norman army at 116, 144–5, 160

  divorce 74

  Dodwell, C. R. 68–72

  Domesday Book 59, 74–5, 101, 144, 200, 205, 207, 230

  Douglas, D. C. 38, 42, 131, 237 n.lxxiii

  The Dream of the Rood 86–7

  Drogo, Count of the Vexin 15, 33

  Dudo of St Quentin 190

  Dunstan, St 53, 82, 136

  Eadburh, abbess 76

  Eadgyth (half-sister of Athelstan) 235 n.xxviii

  Eadhild (sister of Athelstan) 64

  Eadmer, History of Recent Events in England 48–9, 51–3, 206–7, 225

  Eadred, King of England 70

  Eadsige, Archbishop of Canterbury 43

  ealdormen 72–3, 233 n.ii

  Ealdred, Bishop 24

  Bishop of Worcester 128, 138, 226

  Archbishop of York 138, 142, 176, 199–200, 226

  Ecgwynn (wife of Edward the Elder) 45

  Edgar, King of England 5, 57–8, 76, 125, 136

  Edgar the Atheling 29, 31–3, 199–200, 201, 205, 210–11

  Edington, battle of 95

  Edith (handfast wife of Harold Godwinson) 74, 210

  Edith (wife of Edward the Confessor) 21–2, 24, 27, 28, 123, 127, 129, 224–5

  Edmund Ironside, King of England 10–11, 12, 19, 28, 32, 64, 169

  education, Anglo-Saxon 75–81

  Edward, Archdeacon of London 205

  Edward the Atheling or Exile(son of Edmund Ironside) 11, 28–9, 32–3, 43–4

  Edward the Elder, King of Wessex 5, 45, 98

  Edward I, King of England (the Martyr) 5–6, 17

  Edward II (the Confessor), King of England 11, 14, 15, 17–21, 37–38, 59, 123

  foreign policy 24–5

  and Godwin 19–27, 36

  and Harold Godwinson 23, 24, 25–9, 45–53, 124, 126–7

  ill-health and death 125–6, 132

  laws 124–5, 203

  and lay literacy 79–80

  and navy 26, 105

  and Northumbrian uprising 123–5

  succession to 21–2, 28–9, 31–41, 43–54, 126–7, 129, 223

  warfare and diplomacy 94, 124

  and William of Normandy 25, 37–41, 43–4, 48–50, 53–4, 129, 223, 229

  see also Vita Ædwardi Regis

  Edwin Leofricson, Earl of Mercia 124, 130, 149–50, 152, 157, 199, 205

  Eleanor of Aquitaine 214

  embroidery, English 68, 70, 75

  Emma

  as wife of Æthelred II 6, 10, 32, 37

  as wife of Cnut 11, 15, 20

  Encomium Emmæ Regina 15–16, 69, 233 n.vi, 235 n.xxxiv

  English language 56–7, 212–13

  dialects 91

  and Normans 203, 207

  and Norse language 204

  and poetry 7, 81–8

  and prose 88–91, 218

  Erlend Thorfinnsson, Earl of Orkney 148, 157

  Ermenfrid, Bishop of Sion 112, 141

  esquires 113–14

  Estrith (sister of Cnut) 35

  Eustace, count of Boulogne 22–3, 33, 89, 222, 229

  excommunication of Harold II 167–8, 175–6

  Eystein Orri 156

  Fécamp, abbey of 146

  feudalism, Norman 96–7, 105–8, 111–12

  The Fight at Finnesburh (heroic poem) 83

  Fighting Man banner 4, 70

  Fisher, H. A. L. 133–4

  Flanders, Count of see Baldwin V, Count of Flanders; Robert le Frison

  Flateyjarbók 19

  Florence of Worcester 129–30, 143–4, 164

  and battle of Hastings 171–3, 176

  and coronation of Harold II 128, 138

  and death of Edward II 127

  and Harald Hardrada 150

  and Tostig’s rising 123

  value as source 226

  fortifications

  of Alfred 98–9, 162

  Norman 98

  responsibility for 62, 65

  Freeman, E. A. 182

  Fulle
r, Major-Gen. J. F. C. 178, 179–80, 186

  fyrd 65, 147, 151, 196

  general 100, 101, 143–4

  select 100, 102–3

  Gaimar, Geffrei, L’Estoire des Engleis 228

  Gameson, Richard 234 n.xvii

  Gate Fulford, battle of 149–50, 152, 157, 179

  Genesis (heroic poem) 85

  Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou 41–3, 94, 131–2, 203

  Giffard/Gilfard, knight 222

  Gilbert, Archdeacon of Lisieux 133, 138–9

  Gillingham, John 170

  Godgifu (sister of Edward the Confessor) 15, 22, 33

  Godwin, earl of Wessex 16–17, 71, 73, 204

  and Edward II 19–27, 36, 39–40

  Goebbels, Joseph, 53

  gold, in Anglo-Saxon England 67–72

  Golding, William 1

  Gospatric 123

  Grainge, Christine and Gerald 160

  Gregory of Tours 76, 191

  Gregory VII, Pope (Cardinal Hildebrand) 133–4, 135, 139–40, 142–3

  Gruffydd ap Llewellyn 45, 94, 104, 167

  Gunnhild (daughter of Earl Godwin) 80

  Gunnhild (sister of Sweyn Forkbeard) 8

  Guy, Bishop of Amiens, Carmen de Hastingæ Proelio 146, 156–7, 159, 165, 171, 174–5, 181–4, 191–2, 220–3

  Guy, Count of Brionne 41

  Guy, Count of Ponthieu 48, 50, 52, 221

  Gyrth Godwinson, Earl of East Anglia 3, 28, 168–9, 186–7, 227

  Gytha (wife of Earl Godwin) 35

  Hakon Sweynsson 40, 48

  Halley’s comet 130, 223

  handfast marriage 11, 74, 233 n.iv

  Harald Sigurdsson Hardrada, King of Norway 34–5, 36, 126

  death 156, 157, 229

  and Stamford Bridge 116, 117, 119, 151–7, 169, 181

  and Tostig 147–50

  Harald Sweynson, king of Denmark 12

  Hardrada see Harald Sigurdsson Hardrada, King of Norway

  Harold Bluetooth, King of Denmark 8, 14

  Harold Godwinson, Earl of Wessex

  and Alfred the Atheling 17

  campaign in Wales 45, 94, 95, 104

  as claimant to English throne 44–8